Acronym Definition
AMLE Absolute Minimal Lipschitz Extension
AMLE Academy of Management Learning & Education
AMLE Account Manager Learning Environment
AMLE Ammonia Level
AMLE Ammospiza Leconteii
AMLE Approximate Maximum Likelihood Estimator
AMLE Adjustable mortgage loan Evaluation
AMLE Adjustable mortgage loan Evaluation
An adjustable rate mortgage (ARM) is a mortgage loan where the interest rate on
the note is periodically adjusted based on an index. This is done to ensure a
steady margin for the lender, whose own cost of funding will usually be related
to the index. Consequently, payments made by the borrower may change over time
with the changing interest rate (alternatively, the term of the loan may
change). This is not to be confused with the graduated payment mortage, which
offers changing payment amounts but a fixed interest rate. Other forms of
mortgage loan include interest only mortgage, fixed rate mortgage, negative
amortization mortgage, and balloon payment mortgage. Adjustable rates transfer
part of the interest rate risk from the lender to the borrower. They can be used
where unpredictable interest rates make fixed rate loans difficult to obtain.
The borrower benefits if the interest rate falls and loses out if interest rates
rise.
Adjustable rate mortgages are characterized by their index and limitations on
charges (caps). In many countries, adjustable rate mortgages are the norm, and
in such places, may simply be referred to as mortgages.
Characteristics
Index
All adjustable rate mortgages have an adjusting interest rate tied to an index.
In Western Europe, the index may be the TIBOR or Euro Interbank Offered Rate (EURIBOR).
Six common indices in the United States are:
11th District Cost of Funds Index (COFI)
London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR)
12-month Treasury Average Index (MTA)
Constant Maturity Treasury (CMT)
National Average Contract Mortgage Rate
Bank Bill Swap Rate (BBSW)
In some countries, banks may publish a prime lending rate which is used as the
index. The index may be applied in one of three ways: directly, on a rate plus
margin basis, or based on index movement.
A directly applied index means that the interest rate changes exactly with the
index. In other words, the interest rate on the note exactly equals the index.
Of the above indices, only the contract rate index is applied directly.
To apply an index on a rate plus margin basis means that the interest rate will
equal the underlying index plus a margin. The margin is specified in the note
and remains fixed over the life of the loan. For example, a mortgage interest
rate may be specified in the note as being LIBOR plus 2%, 2% being the margin
and LIBOR being the index.
The final way to apply an index is on a movement basis. In this scheme, the
mortgage is originated at an agreed upon rate, then adjusted based on the
movement of the index. Unlike direct or index plus margin, the initial rate is
not explicitly tied to any index; the adjustments are tied to an index.
Limitations on charges (caps)
Any mortgage where payments made by the borrower may increase over time brings
with it the risk of financial hardship to the borrower. To limit this risk,
limitations on charges—known as caps in the industry—are a common feature of
adjustable rate mortgages. Caps typically apply to three characteristics of the
mortgage:
frequency of the interest rate change
periodic change in interest rate
total change in interest rate over the life of the loan, sometimes called life
cap
For example, a given ARM might have the following types of caps:
Interest rate adjustment caps:
interest adjustments made every 6 months, typically 1% per adjustment, 2% total
per year
interest adjustments made only once a year, typically 2% maximum
interest rate may adjust no more than 1% in a year
Mortgage payment adjustment caps:
maximum mortgage payment adjustments of 5% a year, which is common with
pay-option / negative amortization loans
Life of loan interest rate adjustment caps:
total interest rate adjustment limited to 5% of the life of the loan. Most
common is 6% lifetime caps.
Caps on the periodic change in interest rate may be broken up into one limit on
the first periodic change and a separate limit on subsequent periodic change,
for example 5% on the initial adjustment and 2% on subsequent adjustments.
Another common cap is a limitation on the maximum monthly payment expressed in
absolute rather than relative terms, for example $1000 a month.
ARMs which allow negative amortization may have a payment adjustment frequency
which differs from the interest rate adjustment frequency. For example, the
interest rate may be adjusted every six months, but the payment amount only once
every 12 months.
Cap structure is sometimes expressed as initial adjustment cap / subsequent
adjustment cap / life cap, for example 2/2/5 for a loan with a 2% cap on the
inital adjustment, a 2% cap on subsequent adjustments, and a 5% cap on total
interest rate adjustments. When only two values are given, this indicates that
the initial change cap and periodic cap are the same. For example, a 2/2/5 cap
structure may sometimes be written simply 2/5.
Reasons for ARMs
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ARMs generally permit borrowers to lower their payments if they are willing to
assume the risk of interest rate changes. In many countries, banks or similar
financial institutions are the primary originators of mortgages. For banks that
are funded from customer deposits, the customer deposits will typically have
much shorter terms than residential mortgages. If a bank were to offer large
volumes of mortgages at fixed rates but to derive most of its funding from
deposits (or other short-term sources of funds), the bank would have an
asset-liability mismatch: in this case, it would be running the risk that the
interest income from its mortgage portfolio would be less than it needed to pay
its depositors. In the United States, some argue that the savings and loan
crisis was in part caused by this problem, that the savings and loans companies
had short-term deposits and long-term, fixed rate mortgages, and were caught
when Paul Volcker raised interest rates in the early 1980s.
To avoid this risk, many mortgage originators will sell or securitize their
mortgages. Banking regulators pay close attention to asset-liability mismatches
to avoid such problems, and place tight restrictions on the amount of long-term
fixed-rate mortgages that banks may hold (in relation to their other assets).
In this perspective, banks and other financial institutions offer adjustable
rate mortgages because it reduces risk and matches their sources of funding.
For the borrower, adjustable rate mortgages may be less expensive, but at the
price of higher risk borne by the borrower. In most situations, when looking at
a single period (e.g. a year) short-term borrowing appears less expensive than
long-term borrowing, due to the slope of the yield curve. Yet, this difference
is likely founded on the expectations of increases in the short term interest
rate, hence the risk over many periods.
ARM Variants
Hybrid ARMs
A hybrid adjustable-rate mortgage (ARM) is one where the interest rate on the
note is fixed for a period of time, then floats thereafter. The "hybrid" refers
to the blend of fixed rate and adjustable rate characteristics found in hybrid
ARMs. Hybrid ARMs are referred to by their initial fixed period and adjustment
periods, for example 3/1 for an ARM with a 3-year fixed period and subsequent
1-year rate adjustment periods. The date that a hybrid ARM shifts from a
fixed-rate payment schedule to an adjusting payment schedule is known as the
reset date. After the reset date, a hybrid ARM floats at a margin over a
specified index just like any ordinary ARM.
The popularity of hybrid ARMs has significantly increased in recent years. In
1998, the percentage of hybrids relative to 30-year fixed rate mortgages was
less than 2%; within 6 years, this increased to 27.5%.
Like other adjustable-rate products, hybrid ARMs transfer some interest rate
risk from the lender to the borrower, thus allowing the lender to offer a lower
note rate.
Option ARMs
An "option ARM" is a loan where the borrower has the option of making either a
specified minimum payment, an interest-only payment, or a 15-year or 30-year
fixed rate payment in a given month.
This type of loan is also known and advertised as the "pick a payment" or
"pay-option" loan.
When a borrower makes a payment that is less than the interest payment, there is
negative amortization, where the unpaid interest is added back onto the
principal balance. Which is usually the difference between the interest-only
payment and the minimum payment. If the minimum payment is $1,000 and the
interest only payment is $1,500 then $500 will be added on to the back of the
borrower's loan.
Option ARMs are popular because they are usually offered with a very low initial
interest rate (a so-called "teaser rate") and a low minimum payment, which
permits borrowers to qualify for a much larger loan than would otherwise be
possible. When pricing an Option ARM, never focus on the Start Rate of 1% or 2%,
consider only the Fully Indexed Rate (FIR) which is the Margin and the current
Index being used (12-MTA, LIBOR, etc.).
Option ARMs are best suited to people in fields with sporadic income, such as
some self-employed people or those in a highly seasonal business. For example,
someone who makes the majority of their income around the winter holiday season,
but who earns minimal income during the following few months may wish to pay the
full payment during their busy season, but drop back to the interest-only
payment or the minimum during a period of reduced earnings. This gives greater
flexibility to how the mortgage is paid. With a fixed-payment loan, if the
borrower was unable to meet the fixed payment, they would risk late fees or
foreclosure.
The main risk of an Option ARM is "payment shock", when the negative
amortization reaches a stated maximum, at which point the minimum payment will
be raised to a level that amortizes the loan balance.
The function of the loan that can cause this payment shock is called the
"Recast" cap. The recast will happen when the original loan balance reaches 110%
to 125% of the original loan balance due to negative amortization of making the
minimum payment.
For example: a $200,000 with a 110% recast cap will adjust to a fully indexed,
fully amortized payment based on the remaining term of the loan when the
negative amortization add to the loan balance reaches $220,000. For a 125%
recast, this will happen when loan balance reaches $250,000.
Obviously the higher the recast cap the longer it will take for the recast to
take place and the more negative amortization can be added to the loan balance.
Another risk, as with any loan with potential negative amortization, is that the
increased loan balance will reduce or eliminate the borrower's equity in the
financed property, or if the value of the property declines, increase the chance
that he won't be able to sell the property for an amount that will repay the
loan.
Historically, option ARM mortgages have been used effectively to minimize income
taxes and maximize mortgage interest deductions by high net worth homeowners
whose earnings are primarily derived from passive or investment income. By
making minimum payments over the course of a year, these borrowers are able to
defer the majority of the income required to service their mortgage debt to the
end of the year, allowing income brought in as a long term capital gain, and
taxable at a favorable rate, to be used in making lump sum interest payments.
High net worth individuals and real estate investors also have a long history of
utilizing the negative amortization characteristics of these mortgages to their
advantage to avoid taxation entirely on gains in real estate, by refinancing
regularly to "take profits" from illiquid residential and commercial real estate
equity.
Option ARM mortgages are increasingly available in Hybrid, or temporarily Fixed
Rate varieties, from 3 to 10 years, mitigating certain negative amortization
characteristics of the popular Adjustable Rate variety. Largely as a result of
yield curve inversion, a handful of banks have introduced 30 year fixed rate
mortgages with option ARM style minimum payments.
Terminology
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X/Y - Hybrid ARMs are often referred to in this format, where X is the number of
years during which the initial interest rate applies prior to first adjustment
(common terms are 3, 5, 7, and 10 years), and Y is the interval between
adjustments (common terms are 1 for one year and 6 for six months). As an
example, a 5/1 ARM means that the initial interest rate applies for five years
(or 60 months, in terms of payments), after which the interest rate is adjusted
annually. (Adjustments for escrow accounts, however, do not follow the 5/1
schedule; these are done annually.)
Fully Indexed Rate - The price of the ARM as calculated by adding Index + Margin
= Fully Indexed Rate. This is the interest rate your loan would be at without a
Start Rate (the introductory special rate for the initial fixed period). This
means the loan would be higher if adjusting, typically, 1-3% higher than the
fixed rate. Calculating this is important for ARM buyers, since it helps predict
the future interest rate of the loan.
Margin - For ARMs where the index is applied to the interest rate of the note on
an "index plus margin" basis, the margin is the difference between the note rate
and the index on which the note rate is based expressed in percentage terms.
This is not to be confused with profit margin. The lower the margin the better
the loan is as the maximum rate will increase less at each adjustment. Margins
will vary between 2%-7%.
Index - A published financial index such as LIBOR used to periodically adjust
the interest rate of the ARM.
Start Rate - The introductory rate provided to purchasers of ARM loans for the
initial fixed interest period.
Period - The length of time between interest rate adjustments. In times of
falling interest rates, a shorter period benefits the borrower. On the other
hand, in times of rising interest rates, a longer period benefits the lender.
Floor - A clause that sets the minimum rate for the interest rate of an ARM
loan. Loans may come with a Start Rate = Floor feature, but this is primarily
for Non-Conforming (aka Sub-Prime or Program Lending) loan products. This
prevents an ARM loan from ever adjusting lower than the Start Rate. An "A Paper"
loan typically has either no Floor or 2% below start.
Payment Shock - Industry term to describe the severe (unexpected or planned for
by borrower) upward movement of mortgage loan interest rates and its effect on
borrowers. This is the major risk of an ARM, as this can lead to severe
financial hardship for the borrower.
Cap - Any clause that sets a limitation on the amount or frequency of rate
changes.
Loan Caps
Loan caps provide payment protection against payment shock, and allow a measure
of interest rate certainty to those who gamble with initial fixed rates on ARM
loans. There are three types of Caps on a typical First Lien Adjustable Rate
Mortgage or First Lien Hybrid Adjustable Rate Mortgage.
Initial Adjustment Rate Cap: The majority of loans have a higher cap for initial
adjustments that's indexed to the initial fixed period. In other words, the
longer the initial fixed term, the more the bank would like to potentially
adjust your loan. Typically, this cap is 2-3% above the Start Rate on a loan
with an initial fixed rate term of 3 years or lower and 5-6% above the Start
Rate on a loan with an initial fixed rate term of 5 years or greater.
Rate Adjustment Cap: This is the maximum amount by which an Adjustable Rate
Mortgage may increase on each successive adjustment. Similar to the initial cap,
this cap is usually 1% above the Start Rate for loans with an initial fixed term
of 3 years or greater and usually 2% above the Start Rate for loans that have an
initial fixed term of 5 years or greater
Lifetime Cap: Most First Mortgage loans have a 5% or 6% Life Cap above the Start
Rate (this ultimately varies by the lender and credit grade).
Industry Shorthand for ARM Caps
Inside the business caps are expressed most often by simply the 3 numbers
involved that signify each cap. For example, a 5/1 Hybrid ARM may have a cap
structure of 5/2/5 (5% initial cap, 2% adjustment cap and 5% lifetime cap) and
insiders would call this a 5-2-5 cap. Alternately a 1 year arm might have a
1/1/6 cap (1% initial cap, 1% adjustment cap and 6% lifetime cap) known as a
1-1-6, or alternately expressed as a 1/6 cap (leaving out one digit signifies
that the initial and adjustment caps are identical).
Negative amortization ARM caps
See the complete article for the type of ARM that Negative amortization loans
are by nature. Higher risk products, such as First Lien Monthly Adjustable loans
with Negative amortization and Home Equity Lines of Credit aka HELOC have
different ways of structuring the Cap than a typical First Lien Mortgage. The
typical First Lien Monthly Adjustable loans with Negative amortization loan has
a life cap for the underlying rate (aka "Fully Indexed Rate") between 9.95% and
12% (maximum assessed interest rate). Some of these loans can have much higher
rate ceilings. The fully indexed rate is always listed on the statement, but
borrowers are shielded from the full effect of rate increases by the minimum
payment, until the loan is recast, which is when principal and interest payments
are due that will fully amortize the loan at the fully indexed rate.
Home Equity Lines of Credit HELOC
Since HELOCs are intended by banks to primarily sit in second lien position,
they normally are only capped by the maximum interest rate allowed by law in the
state wherein they are issued. For example, Florida currently has an 18% cap on
interest rate charges. These loans are risky in the sense that to lenders, they
are practically a credit card issued to the borrower, with minimal security in
the event of default. They are risky to the borrower in the sense that they are
mostly indexed to the Wall Street Journal Prime Rate, which is considered a Spot
Index, or a financial indicator that is subject to immediate change (as are the
loans based upon the Prime Rate). The risk to borrower being that a financial
situation causing the Federal Reserve to raise rates dramatically (see 1980,
2006) would effect an immediate rise in obligation to the borrower, up to the
capped rate.
Popularity
Variable rate mortgages are the most common form of loan for house purchase in
the United Kingdom and Canada but are unpopular in some other countries.
Variable rate mortgages are very common in Australia and New Zealand. In some
countries, true fixed-rate mortgages are not available except for shorter-term
loans; in Canada, the longest term for which a mortgage rate can be fixed is
typically no more than ten years, while mortgage maturities are commonly 25
years.
In many countries, it is not feasible for banks to borrow at fixed rates for
very long terms; in these cases, the only feasible type of mortgage for banks to
offer may be adjustable rate mortgages (barring some form of government
intervention).
For those who plan to move within a relatively short period of time (three to
seven years), they are attractive because they often include a lower, fixed rate
of interest for the first three, five, or seven years of the loan, after which
the interest rate fluctuates.
Pricing
Adjustable rate mortgages are typically, but not always, less expensive than
fixed-rate mortgages. Due to the inherent interest rate risk, long-term fixed
rates will tend to be higher than short-term rates (which are the basis for
variable-rate loans and mortgages). The difference in interest rates between
short and long-term loans is known as the yield curve, which generally slopes
upward (longer terms are more expensive). The opposite circumstance is known as
an inverted yield curve and is relatively infrequent.
The fact that an adjustable rate mortgage has a lower starting interest rate
does not indicate what the future cost of borrowing will be (when rates change).
If rates rise, the cost will be higher; if rates go down, the rate will be
lower. In effect, the borrower has agreed to take the interest rate risk. Some
studies have shown that on average, the majority of borrowers with adjustable
rate mortgages save money in the long term; but they have also demonstrated that
some borrowers pay more. The price of potentially saving money, in other words,
is balanced by the risk of potentially higher costs.
Prepayment
Adjustable rate mortgages, like other types of mortgage, may offer the ability
to prepay principal (or capital) early without penalty. Early payments of part
of the principal will reduce the total cost of the loan (total interest paid),
and will shorten the amount of time needed to pay off the loan. Early payoff of
the entire loan amount through refinancing is sometimes done when interest rates
drop significantly.
Criticism
Adjustable rate mortgages are sometimes sold to unsophisticated consumers who
are unlikely to be able to repay the loan should interest rates rise. In the
United States, extreme cases are characterized by the Consumer Federation of
America as predatory loans. Protections against interest rate rises include (a)
a possible initial period with a fixed rate (which gives the borrower a chance
to increase his/her annual earnings before payments rise); (b) a maximum (cap)
that interest rates can rise in any year (if there is a cap, it must be
specified in the loan document); and (c) a maximum (cap) that interest rates can
rise over the life of the mortgage (this also must be specified in the loan
document).
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